Robert K. Merton
Complex Organizations
“With increasing bureaucratization, it becomes plain... [that we are] controlled by our social relations to the instruments of production. This can no longer seem only a tenet of Marxism, but a stubborn fact to be acknowledged by all... to work, one must have tools and equipment. And the tools and equipment are increasingly available only in bureaucracies, private or public.” - Robert K. Merton, SRCO
COMMENT:
Tonight we begin a short venture into the ideas of American sociologist Robert Merton, who coined numerous pop and business culture concepts such as "role model," "unintended consequences," and "self-fulfilling prophecy."
Above, he embarks on a discussion of the manner in which we derive meaning in and through bureaucracies. As the systems which provide, to a lesser or greater extent, the means by which we survive, bureaucracies also indirectly provide meaning.
Since the fruits of our labor are not only bread and wine but dignity, self-respect, and self reliance, understanding the most functional manner in which to relate to these organizational systems so that they contribute to (rather than diminish) our meaning structures is of vital concern.
“The efficacy of social structure depends ultimately upon infusing group participants with appropriate attitudes and sentiments.” - Robert K. Merton, SRCO
COMMENT:
We wanted to pause with Merton's opening statement (before he develops an important argument about confusing means with ends) because to stop and review here offers the opportunity to underscore an idea we consider crucial to the success of any group: without the proper attitudes regarding their org, constituents (and their community) will only succeed at failure.
In our work with groups, it has become increasingly clear that if group members don't share and ritually revive a common Idea, then the group perishes, if it ever indeed existed in the first place.
First and foremost must be a commitment to the Idea under which the group was formed, the Mission & Values Statement. Beyond that, however, and often more importantly, there must be a commitment to the nature in which group members will interact, what they will do when these interactions prove difficult, and how these commitments and processes serve the larger Mission.
Without these clear and continuously enacted commitments, group members will exist as disconnected, drifting spirits who occasionally bump against one another in an approximation of community.
However, understanding the Self in the Other (both the Other of the org and the Other of individual community members), and living *with and through* these Others as partners in self-fulfillment and actualization, a group will begin to approach realization as a united entity capable of pursuing and completing its Mission.
The first step, once folks have decided where they're headed, is to discover the unity in action and intention that will guide them along their path. Constructing cyclical opportunities to reinvigorate and re-experience this unity in and through the Mission and each Other is the next (and only other) step. Everything else? A cakewalk.
“Emphasis on appropriate attitudes can lead to "a transference of the sentiments from the *aims* of the organization onto the particular details of behavior required by the rules. Adherence to the rules, originally conceived as a means, becomes... an end-in-itself. There occurs the... *displacement of goals* whereby an ...instrumental value becomes a terminal value." - Robert K. Merton, SRCO
COMMENT:
When an Org rigidly delineates expectations about the proper method by which goals of the org are to be achieved, the beginnings of entropy and dissolution become present. The constituent becomes shackled to a particular way of doing things, and creativity and possibility take a back seat.
Even worse, in most cases the job description becomes the means by which the constituent is judged, and by which she judges herself. No longer are she (or the Org itself!) concerned with the original intended results, but merely with the measurable approach that has been agreed upon for arriving at these goals. The means have become an end.
We can all think of the coworker who completes their responsibilities adequately, who jumps through the required hoops satisfactorily, but who never seems to be able or willing to discover better ways to do so, or to be concerned with the ultimate goals of the Org. "Hey, I'm just doing my job," is the common refrain, "That's somebody else's department," or "They don't pay me to worry about that." In our schools, it is when a student asks, "How many paragraphs?" rather than "How can I improve on my knowledge or skills in the given area?"
Freeing both Org Leaders and constituents from the shackles of SOP is a start in avoiding these pitfalls. To be sure, clear goals should be set and communicated, and fallback guidelines as to how to arrive are important. But allowing constituents the power and freedom to choose their own path, to contribute *of themselves* to the success of the Org, is imperative. The work and the goals of the organization become their own, and not just a set of mechanized processes that almost anyone can do in return for their daily bread.
“The bureaucrat's official life is planned in terms of a graded career of promotion by seniority, pensions, & incremental salaries, all... designed to provide incentives for disciplined action and conformity to official regulations... these devices which increase conformance also lead to an overconcern w/ strict adherence to regulations which induces timidity, conservatism, and technicism.” - Robert K. Merton, SRCO
COMMENT:
Above, Merton continues his exploration of structural sources of overconformity, the kind of "trained incapacity" which can stifle an organization and its constituents. In explaining further, he writes:
"(1) An effective bureaucracy demands reliability of response and devotion to regulations. (2) Such devotion to rules leads to their transformation into absolutes; they are no longer conceived as relative to a set of purposes. (3) This interferes with ready adaptation under special conditions not clearly envisaged by those who drew up the general rules. (4) Thus, the very elements which conduce toward efficiency in general produce inefficiency in specific instances. Full realization of the inadequacy is seldom attained by members of the group who have not divorced themselves from the meanings which the rules have for them."
The Institute interprets Merton's thoughts as being indicative of some organizational considerations and approaches that we both embrace and advocate for:
(1) Constituents making suggestions or asking questions regarding the Process of the org should be given an opportunity to be heard, and given agency to effect change where these explorations bear fruit.
(2) Avenues by which to do so safely and openly should be scheduled regularly within each Org Hub, as well as *across* all Hubs.
(3) In order to facilitate this, Org Leaders should embrace an approach marked by openness and possibility.
“The impersonal treatment of affairs which are at times of great personal significance to the client gives rise to the charge of 'arrogance' and 'haughtiness' of the bureaucrat.” - Robert K. Merton, SRCO
COMMENT:
In other words, the customer isn't *always* right, but they should always be listened and responded to effectively, employing techniques from Conflict Resolution and Nonviolent Communication.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, edited by Amitai Etzioni
Sunday, October 31, 2010
Sunday, October 17, 2010
Talcott Parsons: A Sociological Approach to Theory of Organizations, SRCO
“... the focus of [an organization's] value system must be the legitimation of [its primary] goal in terms of the functional significance of its attainment for the superordinate system, and secondly the legitimation of the primacy of this goal over other possible interests and values of the organization and its members.” - Talcott Parsons, SRCO
COMMENT:
The set of values governing an org's direction must be linked to the overall goal of the system if either are to be successful in uniting constituents within the type of community that remains sound and cohesive.
Further, *both* must find so...me purchase within the context of the larger system within which they operate to be ultimately successful, else the larger system will have no cause to incorporate the org (nor its values and goals) into the grander pattern necessary to sustain it.
At odds with this necessity are the more unique necessities of org members: even if their ultimate values are legitimated by the group, if other individual values, needs, and goals are not met then the group will suffer from high turnover and the malaise of disinterested and dissatisfied members.
The Org Leader recognizes that connecting as many needs as possible to System Values and Goals is a step in the direction of true community. Further, it is imperative that the Org Leader learn to adapt to and account for those needs that *aren't* being met, in order to allow for their healthy and functional expression elsewhere.
No one wants to sacrifice their time, needs, and even wants more often than not: asking constituents to forego their own goals in the name of those of the larger Group will too often send them in search of another org more in line with their value system, and leave the Org weaker.
“It is reasonable to postulate an inherent centrifugal tendency of subunits of the organization [to drift from the pull of their org]. The organization must... be ready to take measures [to counteract this pull using] any 1 or a combination of 3 fundamental forms: 1) coercion... 2) inducement... and 3) therapy.” - Talcott Parsons, SRCO
COMMENT:
It is indeed, as Parsons suggests, generally the case that individual interests will sooner or later pull a constituent away from their organization: this is to be expected, and even celebrated by those Org Leaders who recognize that the la...rger system of human contact and cooperation is driven by these impulses rather than marred by them.
The best and only means by which to attempt to preserve organizational cohesion is, as stated below, that approach which incorporates as many individual interests into the larger organizational context as possible while remaining true to org goals and values.
To this end, we tend to eschew Parsons' first measure above, "coercion," as a perversion of what is and should be the intent of all gatherings: to commune. That said, it can be a useful tactic for those neither concerned with Community or with Conflict Resolution.
His second suggestion, "inducement," comes closer to the kind of approach that we at The Institute would embrace, given that it seeks to "sweeten the deal," to encourage and elicit organizational devotion by dangling desires before the constituent: more power, more money, greater responsibilities or title, etc.
It is his third suggestion, however, that we find to be the most fruitful approach. His use of the word "therapy" appears to be his generation's expression of the idea of what we would describe as "genuine dialogue." While "inducement" can go a long way in preserving org constituency, it often misses the mark because it fails to accurately ascertain what it is that any org member *really wants* - at best, if offers an approximation.
By engaging in, encouraging, and consistently making room and time for ongoing, authentic explorations of org member wishes and hopes, the Org Leader can discover what truly drives org members, and so can determine the heart of their Org Identity. In doing so, the Org finds itself more *real* and so more capable of being "in reality," more effective and cohesive.
Indeed, as org members continue to discover *themselves* within the organization, the organization continues to find success and growth.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations
COMMENT:
The set of values governing an org's direction must be linked to the overall goal of the system if either are to be successful in uniting constituents within the type of community that remains sound and cohesive.
Further, *both* must find so...me purchase within the context of the larger system within which they operate to be ultimately successful, else the larger system will have no cause to incorporate the org (nor its values and goals) into the grander pattern necessary to sustain it.
At odds with this necessity are the more unique necessities of org members: even if their ultimate values are legitimated by the group, if other individual values, needs, and goals are not met then the group will suffer from high turnover and the malaise of disinterested and dissatisfied members.
The Org Leader recognizes that connecting as many needs as possible to System Values and Goals is a step in the direction of true community. Further, it is imperative that the Org Leader learn to adapt to and account for those needs that *aren't* being met, in order to allow for their healthy and functional expression elsewhere.
No one wants to sacrifice their time, needs, and even wants more often than not: asking constituents to forego their own goals in the name of those of the larger Group will too often send them in search of another org more in line with their value system, and leave the Org weaker.
“It is reasonable to postulate an inherent centrifugal tendency of subunits of the organization [to drift from the pull of their org]. The organization must... be ready to take measures [to counteract this pull using] any 1 or a combination of 3 fundamental forms: 1) coercion... 2) inducement... and 3) therapy.” - Talcott Parsons, SRCO
COMMENT:
It is indeed, as Parsons suggests, generally the case that individual interests will sooner or later pull a constituent away from their organization: this is to be expected, and even celebrated by those Org Leaders who recognize that the la...rger system of human contact and cooperation is driven by these impulses rather than marred by them.
The best and only means by which to attempt to preserve organizational cohesion is, as stated below, that approach which incorporates as many individual interests into the larger organizational context as possible while remaining true to org goals and values.
To this end, we tend to eschew Parsons' first measure above, "coercion," as a perversion of what is and should be the intent of all gatherings: to commune. That said, it can be a useful tactic for those neither concerned with Community or with Conflict Resolution.
His second suggestion, "inducement," comes closer to the kind of approach that we at The Institute would embrace, given that it seeks to "sweeten the deal," to encourage and elicit organizational devotion by dangling desires before the constituent: more power, more money, greater responsibilities or title, etc.
It is his third suggestion, however, that we find to be the most fruitful approach. His use of the word "therapy" appears to be his generation's expression of the idea of what we would describe as "genuine dialogue." While "inducement" can go a long way in preserving org constituency, it often misses the mark because it fails to accurately ascertain what it is that any org member *really wants* - at best, if offers an approximation.
By engaging in, encouraging, and consistently making room and time for ongoing, authentic explorations of org member wishes and hopes, the Org Leader can discover what truly drives org members, and so can determine the heart of their Org Identity. In doing so, the Org finds itself more *real* and so more capable of being "in reality," more effective and cohesive.
Indeed, as org members continue to discover *themselves* within the organization, the organization continues to find success and growth.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations
Philip Selznick: Foundations of A Theory of Organization, SRCO
"The organic, emergent character of the formal organization considered as a COOPERATIVE system must be recognized... the nature of authority in formal organizations is reinterpreted to emphasize the factors of cohesion and persuasion as against legal or coercive sources." - Phillip Selznick, in SRCO (emphasis added)
COMMENT:
We include this thought to highlight what we consider to be the liberating and necessary movement of an org from a position of coercive, top-down, authoritative structuring toward one which includes a more holistic approach to being togethe...r and to achieving common goals.
Every member of an org contributes a unique frame of reference (and a unique understanding based on that frame) to the collective experience of the group. Failing to take these perspectives into account - both to enrich the organizational vision as well as to correct any misperceptions - is the beginning and end of toxicity.
Ideally, anyone who takes a Leadership role in an org should be willing to recognize the need for COOPERATION within the group - at every level, between all members - if they are to inspire and encourage the kind of collective spirit that brings The Many into a commitment to and a realization of The One goal.
"Cooperative systems are constituted of individuals interacting as wholes in relation to a formal system of coordination. The concrete structure is therefore a resultant of the reciprocal influences of the formal and informal aspects of organization... a totality, an adaptive 'organism' reacting to influences upon it from an external environment." - Phillip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
Two different organizations, friends of The Institute, recently received some very good news regarding their success in achieving goals and advancing their collective missions. Both groups had undergone various organizational changes and re...structurings in response to what they considered the 'bad' news of a year or so ago.
In a debrief, we were enheartened by the revealing comment of one constituent, who stated that it was only when she was able to gather with all of her Others in the org in a manner that felt truly *unitive* that she began to feel as if there might be some light at the end of what she'd considered to be a very dark tunnel for her community.
She didn't know it, but she was voicing a sentiment very clearly in keeping with our own understanding (and the aim of all of our consulting work) of what it means to "be together" with others, and also echoing what Phillip Selznick refers to above when he calls the organization an "organism."
Indeed, until a group begins to function as a whole - as a sum greater than its parts - then any organizational forward motion will be akin to that of a toddler teetering between the couch and the kitchen table. Progress may or may not be made, and if we arrive at our goal, it will be with more surprise than conviction.
However, once the group learns to walk together - once the toddler learns to bring all of its capabilities (balance, will, sight, motor function, decision making, etc.) to bear on her goal - then there will never again be another doubt that they can succeed. To be sure, the only question left to answer at that point will be "How do we do it better, quicker, and with more joy?"
"Structural-functional analysis relates contemporary, variable behavior to a presumptively stable system of needs/mechanisms... a given system is deemed to have basic needs, essentially related to self-maintenance; the system develops repetitive means of self-defense; and day-to-day activity is interpreted in terms of ...the function served... for maintenance and defense of the system." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
What is clear in examining Selznick's work is the idea that a well-functioning organization has to proceed *in unison* - as a whole unit rather than as individual parts attempting to meet individual goals.
We find the human body to be a per...fect example of this harnessing of numerous members of an organization in order to achieve its ultimate goals. A physically healthy and well-functioning human draws from a multitude of constituents and sub-systems in order to meet the needs defined by it's conscious will, its "mission-statement."
When any of these elements within the structure begin to fail, this has a deleterious effect on the entire body. Indeed, we've all experienced the chagrin of not being able to fulfill our goals and obligations due to fatigue or an illness. Organizations are exactly the same, relying on the accurate and earnest attempts by all involved to meet the overarching goals of the group.
Open lines of communication are the first line of defense in avoiding this. If our body is experiencing a conflict of some sort, it tells us by our experiencing pain or discomfort. The healthy organization is one in which avenues and processes for the sharing and distribution of information are wide open, so that small snags within the "dynamic system" don't turn into toxicity and system failure.
System Maintenance Imperative 1: "The security of the organization as a whole in relation to social forces in its environment." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
In order to maintain equilibrium, as a self or as a group, awareness of those factors within the social environment that may negatively impact health and goals is crucial. However, this is most easily accomplished by recognizing the power ...of the Self to determine the nature of Other.
For instance, every major religious tradition eschews gossip. Another manner in which to interpret this is to say that any information flowing into the org that is neither true nor positive (read: information that is not real or actionable) is a threat.
However, maintaining a positive frame of reference, and so a clear understanding of the manner in which to interpret stimuli that is all too often labeled as "negative" or "harmful" is crucial.
One needn't label impinging social forces as bad. Knowing that one must live with and respond to "what is" as opposed to "what is wanted" is the first step in being healthy as a Self, individually or organizationally, and is the primary manner in which to avoid any "clear or present danger."
Selznick's 2nd Maintenance Imperative will build upon this approach.
System Maintenance Imperative 2: "The Stability of the Lines of Authority & Communication." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
Fear and Doubt are great threats to a system.
In order for a Self to avoid these, to manage their perception in a positive way (and so within a frame that allows for the greatest possibility of meeting goals), stability of the lines of com...munication is crucial. Knowing at every step which directions and options are available allows constituents in any org to maintain system integrity, progress, and balance.
Where a system finds itself in conflict - where constituents cannot freely obtain or process the information flowing through them - entropy and degradation begin to creep in. Clearly outlining expectations and options, and providing an Ombuds to help manage static in communication, frees the system from the worst of (and the majority of) these contaminations.
System Maintenance Imperative 3: "The Stability of Informal Relations within the Organization." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
This Imperative brings to mind an idea that has been a driving force for The Institute: we exist as communities (be they functional or dysfunctional), wherever we gather. We derive meaning from those around us, and from the relationships w...e develop with these Others, especially when we commune with them on a daily basis.
It cannot be denied that, for most, the workplace is a home away from home, and where we spend the majority of our waking hours five days out of the week. To treat this situation as anything other than an opportunity for enrichment and meaning-creation for all concerned is to miss a crucial chance at organizational effectiveness.
But it is a chance that is often missed, and why we advocate continuing and ongoing communication between and among all constituents. Selznick reminds us that folks grow used to each other and to our ways, and that "ties of sentiment and self-interest... represent a cementing of relationships which sustains" the organization.
It is imperative that org leaders respect the friendships, informal rituals, and expressions of Self that occur within the communal context, because these create a bond between the constituent Self and the organizational Other that cannot be fabricated or artificially emulated. These are "real" events, and can only happen organically and over time.
The best choice any org leader can make is to create and allow an environment, the fertile soil if you will, for the flowering of the intertwining vines of Community, and to cultivate these where they take root.
System Maintenance Imperative 4: "The Continuity of Policy and of the Sources of Its Determination." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
Religion is built around Ritual for numerous reasons, particularly the idea that repetitive action attached to a specific intention creates a meaning structure around which the Self can discover and maintain order.
We believe what we believe..., and so we make sense of what we make sense of, in large part because we create a system of repeated actions that serve to reinforce that belief and so make reality "real."
Imagine being in a romantic relationship that lacks the good night kisses, the knowing glances across a room, the reassuring touch in times of stress, or the pet-names, the passionate embraces, the Sunday morning routines. Not very easy, is it?
We know "Romance" because we know and have agreed upon with an Other the actions that make it so. We all know the pain of heartbreak, usually indicated by either the rapid or steady decline in those rituals that connect us to our partner: they stop believing as we believe, and so they stop believing in "us." Indeed, "we" are no longer real.
Organizations function along the same lines. Without the continuity and stability that says "We are real" and "Our goals and intentions are real," disintegration and the inability of the constituent to "make sense" of their place in the world become the order of the day. The organization is no longer an organization, but a loose group of individuals pretending at unity.
Selznick writes, "Arbitrary or unpredictable changes in policy undermine the significance of day-to-day action by injecting a note of capriciousness... the organization will seek stable roots so that a sense of the permanency and legitimacy of its acts will be achieved."
That said, we also ask you to imagine the aforementioned romantic relationship as a series of stale, solidified rituals: the "same ol' same ol'," lacking spontaneity or excitement. Such a relationship is doomed as well, no longer an experience full of possibility, but only a model, a caricature. Org Leaders must learn to ride the fine line between instability/chaos and entrenchment/entropy, a topic which we will explore again soon in our examination of "Flow."
System Maintenance Imperative 5: "A Homogeneity of Outlook with Respect to the Meaning and Role of the Organization." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
We hope that it has become clear at this point that we embrace and encourage a workplace that concerns itself with creating and sharing meaning with and among its workers: in short, an organization that strives to be a community.
Humans embr...ace meaning at one end of a continuum that French psychologist of religion Paul Ricoeur describes as interpolating between Life and Death: so, Love and Hate, Alienation and Community, etc.
Organizations are, in many ways, belief systems. Members want to connect themselves to a larger Group which describes and advances their own individual meaning structures. Taking Ricoeur's work into consideration (as well as that of Emile Durkheim), this means that orgs which offer opportunities to experience Joy, Virtue, and Community will find themselves graced by constituents that wish to remain connected to and advance the goals of their larger Self.
It is crucial to maintain and continuously relive a set of simple organizational meanings (enacted through roles and functions which also advance the more mundane aspects of the org) on a regular basis. This allows for a common outlook regarding the org to be continually celebrated, and is the key to creating a lasting structure around which constituents can commune and thrive.
Indeed, "one of the signs of a 'healthy' organization is the ability to effectively orient new members and readily slough off those who cannot be adapted to the established outlook."
Clearly, the organization that has created a communal and narrative structure which in order to define itself is significantly closer to wholeness, while that org which has *not* clearly defined nor consistently maintained a guiding outlook approaches toxicity, and lack of unity.
“We are insescapably committed to the mediation of human structures which are at once indispensable to our goals and at the same time stand between them and ourselves... we find a persistent relationship between *need* and *commitment* in which the latter not only qualifies the former but unites with it to produce a continuous state of tension." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
In this our last visit with Selznick for awhile (and before we tackle the ideas of American sociologist Talcott Parsons), we felt it crucial to underscore this last idea concerning organizational commitment.
Indeed, Org Leaders would do well... to keep in mind the tension created by need and commitment. Once a community begins failing to meet the needs of its constituents, their commitment levels undergo a drastic decrease (see Rosabeth Moss Kanter, on your own or here soon).
Discovering the manner in which to meet as many org member needs as possible is the first step in creating a culture of community and cohesion. Intertwining these needs with those of the group is an easy second step, and tends to happen naturally if allowed to do so.
From a business standpoint, providing child care, health care, fitness club memberships, or catered lunches are some of the easier and more obvious approaches to gathering individual needs under the organizational umbrella.
A more subtle approach includes providing opportunities for org members to advance their own agendas, to take ownership of projects or improvement plans, and to have a voice in events or processes that will have an impact upon them. Once constituents find that their own agency is advanced by and included in the larger group, the lines between individual Self and organizational Other begin to dissolve.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, edited by Amitai Etzioni
COMMENT:
We include this thought to highlight what we consider to be the liberating and necessary movement of an org from a position of coercive, top-down, authoritative structuring toward one which includes a more holistic approach to being togethe...r and to achieving common goals.
Every member of an org contributes a unique frame of reference (and a unique understanding based on that frame) to the collective experience of the group. Failing to take these perspectives into account - both to enrich the organizational vision as well as to correct any misperceptions - is the beginning and end of toxicity.
Ideally, anyone who takes a Leadership role in an org should be willing to recognize the need for COOPERATION within the group - at every level, between all members - if they are to inspire and encourage the kind of collective spirit that brings The Many into a commitment to and a realization of The One goal.
"Cooperative systems are constituted of individuals interacting as wholes in relation to a formal system of coordination. The concrete structure is therefore a resultant of the reciprocal influences of the formal and informal aspects of organization... a totality, an adaptive 'organism' reacting to influences upon it from an external environment." - Phillip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
Two different organizations, friends of The Institute, recently received some very good news regarding their success in achieving goals and advancing their collective missions. Both groups had undergone various organizational changes and re...structurings in response to what they considered the 'bad' news of a year or so ago.
In a debrief, we were enheartened by the revealing comment of one constituent, who stated that it was only when she was able to gather with all of her Others in the org in a manner that felt truly *unitive* that she began to feel as if there might be some light at the end of what she'd considered to be a very dark tunnel for her community.
She didn't know it, but she was voicing a sentiment very clearly in keeping with our own understanding (and the aim of all of our consulting work) of what it means to "be together" with others, and also echoing what Phillip Selznick refers to above when he calls the organization an "organism."
Indeed, until a group begins to function as a whole - as a sum greater than its parts - then any organizational forward motion will be akin to that of a toddler teetering between the couch and the kitchen table. Progress may or may not be made, and if we arrive at our goal, it will be with more surprise than conviction.
However, once the group learns to walk together - once the toddler learns to bring all of its capabilities (balance, will, sight, motor function, decision making, etc.) to bear on her goal - then there will never again be another doubt that they can succeed. To be sure, the only question left to answer at that point will be "How do we do it better, quicker, and with more joy?"
"Structural-functional analysis relates contemporary, variable behavior to a presumptively stable system of needs/mechanisms... a given system is deemed to have basic needs, essentially related to self-maintenance; the system develops repetitive means of self-defense; and day-to-day activity is interpreted in terms of ...the function served... for maintenance and defense of the system." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
What is clear in examining Selznick's work is the idea that a well-functioning organization has to proceed *in unison* - as a whole unit rather than as individual parts attempting to meet individual goals.
We find the human body to be a per...fect example of this harnessing of numerous members of an organization in order to achieve its ultimate goals. A physically healthy and well-functioning human draws from a multitude of constituents and sub-systems in order to meet the needs defined by it's conscious will, its "mission-statement."
When any of these elements within the structure begin to fail, this has a deleterious effect on the entire body. Indeed, we've all experienced the chagrin of not being able to fulfill our goals and obligations due to fatigue or an illness. Organizations are exactly the same, relying on the accurate and earnest attempts by all involved to meet the overarching goals of the group.
Open lines of communication are the first line of defense in avoiding this. If our body is experiencing a conflict of some sort, it tells us by our experiencing pain or discomfort. The healthy organization is one in which avenues and processes for the sharing and distribution of information are wide open, so that small snags within the "dynamic system" don't turn into toxicity and system failure.
System Maintenance Imperative 1: "The security of the organization as a whole in relation to social forces in its environment." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
In order to maintain equilibrium, as a self or as a group, awareness of those factors within the social environment that may negatively impact health and goals is crucial. However, this is most easily accomplished by recognizing the power ...of the Self to determine the nature of Other.
For instance, every major religious tradition eschews gossip. Another manner in which to interpret this is to say that any information flowing into the org that is neither true nor positive (read: information that is not real or actionable) is a threat.
However, maintaining a positive frame of reference, and so a clear understanding of the manner in which to interpret stimuli that is all too often labeled as "negative" or "harmful" is crucial.
One needn't label impinging social forces as bad. Knowing that one must live with and respond to "what is" as opposed to "what is wanted" is the first step in being healthy as a Self, individually or organizationally, and is the primary manner in which to avoid any "clear or present danger."
Selznick's 2nd Maintenance Imperative will build upon this approach.
System Maintenance Imperative 2: "The Stability of the Lines of Authority & Communication." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
Fear and Doubt are great threats to a system.
In order for a Self to avoid these, to manage their perception in a positive way (and so within a frame that allows for the greatest possibility of meeting goals), stability of the lines of com...munication is crucial. Knowing at every step which directions and options are available allows constituents in any org to maintain system integrity, progress, and balance.
Where a system finds itself in conflict - where constituents cannot freely obtain or process the information flowing through them - entropy and degradation begin to creep in. Clearly outlining expectations and options, and providing an Ombuds to help manage static in communication, frees the system from the worst of (and the majority of) these contaminations.
System Maintenance Imperative 3: "The Stability of Informal Relations within the Organization." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
This Imperative brings to mind an idea that has been a driving force for The Institute: we exist as communities (be they functional or dysfunctional), wherever we gather. We derive meaning from those around us, and from the relationships w...e develop with these Others, especially when we commune with them on a daily basis.
It cannot be denied that, for most, the workplace is a home away from home, and where we spend the majority of our waking hours five days out of the week. To treat this situation as anything other than an opportunity for enrichment and meaning-creation for all concerned is to miss a crucial chance at organizational effectiveness.
But it is a chance that is often missed, and why we advocate continuing and ongoing communication between and among all constituents. Selznick reminds us that folks grow used to each other and to our ways, and that "ties of sentiment and self-interest... represent a cementing of relationships which sustains" the organization.
It is imperative that org leaders respect the friendships, informal rituals, and expressions of Self that occur within the communal context, because these create a bond between the constituent Self and the organizational Other that cannot be fabricated or artificially emulated. These are "real" events, and can only happen organically and over time.
The best choice any org leader can make is to create and allow an environment, the fertile soil if you will, for the flowering of the intertwining vines of Community, and to cultivate these where they take root.
System Maintenance Imperative 4: "The Continuity of Policy and of the Sources of Its Determination." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
Religion is built around Ritual for numerous reasons, particularly the idea that repetitive action attached to a specific intention creates a meaning structure around which the Self can discover and maintain order.
We believe what we believe..., and so we make sense of what we make sense of, in large part because we create a system of repeated actions that serve to reinforce that belief and so make reality "real."
Imagine being in a romantic relationship that lacks the good night kisses, the knowing glances across a room, the reassuring touch in times of stress, or the pet-names, the passionate embraces, the Sunday morning routines. Not very easy, is it?
We know "Romance" because we know and have agreed upon with an Other the actions that make it so. We all know the pain of heartbreak, usually indicated by either the rapid or steady decline in those rituals that connect us to our partner: they stop believing as we believe, and so they stop believing in "us." Indeed, "we" are no longer real.
Organizations function along the same lines. Without the continuity and stability that says "We are real" and "Our goals and intentions are real," disintegration and the inability of the constituent to "make sense" of their place in the world become the order of the day. The organization is no longer an organization, but a loose group of individuals pretending at unity.
Selznick writes, "Arbitrary or unpredictable changes in policy undermine the significance of day-to-day action by injecting a note of capriciousness... the organization will seek stable roots so that a sense of the permanency and legitimacy of its acts will be achieved."
That said, we also ask you to imagine the aforementioned romantic relationship as a series of stale, solidified rituals: the "same ol' same ol'," lacking spontaneity or excitement. Such a relationship is doomed as well, no longer an experience full of possibility, but only a model, a caricature. Org Leaders must learn to ride the fine line between instability/chaos and entrenchment/entropy, a topic which we will explore again soon in our examination of "Flow."
System Maintenance Imperative 5: "A Homogeneity of Outlook with Respect to the Meaning and Role of the Organization." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
We hope that it has become clear at this point that we embrace and encourage a workplace that concerns itself with creating and sharing meaning with and among its workers: in short, an organization that strives to be a community.
Humans embr...ace meaning at one end of a continuum that French psychologist of religion Paul Ricoeur describes as interpolating between Life and Death: so, Love and Hate, Alienation and Community, etc.
Organizations are, in many ways, belief systems. Members want to connect themselves to a larger Group which describes and advances their own individual meaning structures. Taking Ricoeur's work into consideration (as well as that of Emile Durkheim), this means that orgs which offer opportunities to experience Joy, Virtue, and Community will find themselves graced by constituents that wish to remain connected to and advance the goals of their larger Self.
It is crucial to maintain and continuously relive a set of simple organizational meanings (enacted through roles and functions which also advance the more mundane aspects of the org) on a regular basis. This allows for a common outlook regarding the org to be continually celebrated, and is the key to creating a lasting structure around which constituents can commune and thrive.
Indeed, "one of the signs of a 'healthy' organization is the ability to effectively orient new members and readily slough off those who cannot be adapted to the established outlook."
Clearly, the organization that has created a communal and narrative structure which in order to define itself is significantly closer to wholeness, while that org which has *not* clearly defined nor consistently maintained a guiding outlook approaches toxicity, and lack of unity.
“We are insescapably committed to the mediation of human structures which are at once indispensable to our goals and at the same time stand between them and ourselves... we find a persistent relationship between *need* and *commitment* in which the latter not only qualifies the former but unites with it to produce a continuous state of tension." - Philip Selznick, SRCO
COMMENT:
In this our last visit with Selznick for awhile (and before we tackle the ideas of American sociologist Talcott Parsons), we felt it crucial to underscore this last idea concerning organizational commitment.
Indeed, Org Leaders would do well... to keep in mind the tension created by need and commitment. Once a community begins failing to meet the needs of its constituents, their commitment levels undergo a drastic decrease (see Rosabeth Moss Kanter, on your own or here soon).
Discovering the manner in which to meet as many org member needs as possible is the first step in creating a culture of community and cohesion. Intertwining these needs with those of the group is an easy second step, and tends to happen naturally if allowed to do so.
From a business standpoint, providing child care, health care, fitness club memberships, or catered lunches are some of the easier and more obvious approaches to gathering individual needs under the organizational umbrella.
A more subtle approach includes providing opportunities for org members to advance their own agendas, to take ownership of projects or improvement plans, and to have a voice in events or processes that will have an impact upon them. Once constituents find that their own agency is advanced by and included in the larger group, the lines between individual Self and organizational Other begin to dissolve.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, edited by Amitai Etzioni
Saturday, October 16, 2010
Amitai Etzioni, Ed: A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations
"On the one hand, any concrete organizational structure is an economy; at the same time, it is an adaptive social structure." - A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations (SRCO), edited by Amitai Etzioni
COMMENT:
In keeping with our tradition of interpolating between food for thought from both the sacred and the secular realms, we turn now to a text we're finding particularly useful of late on the nature of complex organizations from a sociological ...perspective. Etzioni's book helps us reinterpret the sacred ideals of Confucian ethics we've recently been exploring and translate them into a language that is more applicable to the vocabulary of the workplace, a major focus of our work. Thanks for joining us on our journey!
"Considered as an economy, 'organization' is a system of relationships which define the availability of scarce resources and which may be manipulated in terms of efficiency and effectiveness." - SRCO
COMMENT:
In exploring any community from this perspective, it is important to keep in mind the idea of Balance. Any organization must learn to express itself in the direction of Balance if it is to sustain itself. Reaching beyond its means will us...ually result in exhaustion, while not attempting to test its limits usually arrives at gluttony. Both result in what most people tend to describe as failure, and in what The Institute describes as waste and imbalance.
Indeed, in order to discover itself in the ever-unfolding moment as both a history and a future, to be both self-sustaining and self-propelling, to live in what Cziksentmihalyi describes as Flow (more on that later), a community must determine what it is ultimately capable of, and implement its strategies and action-plans with this in mind.
Unable to legitimate its aspirations, or unwilling to explore them, the organization remains mired in entropy, stuck. Understanding this is the first step in making sense of organizational effectiveness, and applies to any community: that of the Self, the Group, or the Society.
"Organization as an economy is, however, necessarily conditioned by the organic states of the concrete structure... [and] depends on the extent to which that system is operating within an environment of effective inducement to individual participants..." – SRCO
COMMENT:
Picking up where our comment from 27 June left off, this second aspect of Phillip Selznick's thoughts on concrete organizations is crucial to our understanding of what *really* happens within the organizational context.
To be sure, there nee...ds to exist the framework upon which the organization rests: the "system of relationships" (or Blueprint, as we at The Institute like to call it) that, when kept in Balance between Is and Ought, between Past and Future, guides participants as they express themselves in and through their organization.
However, the authenticity of these expressions - the extent to which participants commit themselves to the organization and its goals - depends ultimately on the nature of the interactions between participants and each other and between participants and the organization. Positive interactions yield positive results. Negative interactions, well... not so much.
So it stands to reason that those who are capable of navigating the structure of their organization deftly will contribute to creating a meaningful and successful org. These will be the folks who understand exactly what is expected of them at all points of interaction, and who are good at responding to these expectations (read: can respond without taking advantage or feeling put upon).
Every participant who is able to accomplish this (no easy task, but easily teachable) will be one more participant in an increasingly healthy organization.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, by Amitai Etzioni
COMMENT:
In keeping with our tradition of interpolating between food for thought from both the sacred and the secular realms, we turn now to a text we're finding particularly useful of late on the nature of complex organizations from a sociological ...perspective. Etzioni's book helps us reinterpret the sacred ideals of Confucian ethics we've recently been exploring and translate them into a language that is more applicable to the vocabulary of the workplace, a major focus of our work. Thanks for joining us on our journey!
"Considered as an economy, 'organization' is a system of relationships which define the availability of scarce resources and which may be manipulated in terms of efficiency and effectiveness." - SRCO
COMMENT:
In exploring any community from this perspective, it is important to keep in mind the idea of Balance. Any organization must learn to express itself in the direction of Balance if it is to sustain itself. Reaching beyond its means will us...ually result in exhaustion, while not attempting to test its limits usually arrives at gluttony. Both result in what most people tend to describe as failure, and in what The Institute describes as waste and imbalance.
Indeed, in order to discover itself in the ever-unfolding moment as both a history and a future, to be both self-sustaining and self-propelling, to live in what Cziksentmihalyi describes as Flow (more on that later), a community must determine what it is ultimately capable of, and implement its strategies and action-plans with this in mind.
Unable to legitimate its aspirations, or unwilling to explore them, the organization remains mired in entropy, stuck. Understanding this is the first step in making sense of organizational effectiveness, and applies to any community: that of the Self, the Group, or the Society.
"Organization as an economy is, however, necessarily conditioned by the organic states of the concrete structure... [and] depends on the extent to which that system is operating within an environment of effective inducement to individual participants..." – SRCO
COMMENT:
Picking up where our comment from 27 June left off, this second aspect of Phillip Selznick's thoughts on concrete organizations is crucial to our understanding of what *really* happens within the organizational context.
To be sure, there nee...ds to exist the framework upon which the organization rests: the "system of relationships" (or Blueprint, as we at The Institute like to call it) that, when kept in Balance between Is and Ought, between Past and Future, guides participants as they express themselves in and through their organization.
However, the authenticity of these expressions - the extent to which participants commit themselves to the organization and its goals - depends ultimately on the nature of the interactions between participants and each other and between participants and the organization. Positive interactions yield positive results. Negative interactions, well... not so much.
So it stands to reason that those who are capable of navigating the structure of their organization deftly will contribute to creating a meaningful and successful org. These will be the folks who understand exactly what is expected of them at all points of interaction, and who are good at responding to these expectations (read: can respond without taking advantage or feeling put upon).
Every participant who is able to accomplish this (no easy task, but easily teachable) will be one more participant in an increasingly healthy organization.
A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, by Amitai Etzioni
Taoism & Confucianism: Relationships & Reality
"The softest thing under heaven / gallops triumphantly over / The hardest thing under heaven... Treat well those who are good, / Also treat well those who are not good; / thus is goodness attained. / Be sincere to those who are sincere, / Also be sincere to those who are insincere. / Thus is sincerity attained." - Tao Te Ching, 6 & 12
"To realize that you do not understand is a virtue / To not realize that you do not understand is a defect / The reason why / The sage has no defects, / Is because he treats defects as defects. / Thus, he has no defects" - Tao Te Ching
COMMENT:
The idea here, from a Communication perspective, would be to see that all conflicts result from our not understanding our communication partner, and that most conflicts can be managed effectively by seeking to more clearly gain this necessary understanding. At this point, our "defect" is treated as such, eliminating it altogether.
“Human beings are / soft and supple when alive, / stiff and straight when dead. / The myriad creatures, the grasses and trees are / soft and fragile when alive, / dry and withered when dead. / Therefore it is said: / The rigid person is a disciple of death; / The soft, supple, and delicate are lovers of life.” - Tao Te Ching 41
“... human beings have an intrinsic value not because they are individual rights bearers, but because they are constitutive parts of an intrinsically valuable whole... not because they are individuals, but because they are interrelated.” - Confucian Ethics
"... people deserve respect and have dignity in two ways: externally, from the point of view of an observer, because they are integral parts of an intrinsically valuable whole, the sacred dance, and internally, from the point of view of other participants, because, analogous to the way that family members deserve respect from each other, we are all part of the same family." - Confucian Ethics
"When a group is a community working toward a common goal, talk of rights is [not] appropriate... it can be deleterious. Respect, equality, & dignity are all understood in terms of being a contributing member of the community. There will still be rules & boundaries, not because individuals... have rights, but because r...oles must be defined for the community to work effectively & to progress." - Confucian Ethics
COMMENT:
What is important about this statement is how it reveals a different manner in which to conceive of human value, and especially of what community "is." Consider it a process, an ongoing event: imagine a basketball game in which one player h...as violated another - perhaps she's physically restrained an opposing player who could have easily scored. Has the restrained player had their rights violated? Surely. But is this focus appropriate? Or does the deeper question surround the implications for the team itself, and for the game and all who are involved in it?
"... the need to protect and allow for the peaceful transformations of communities requires regular and institutionalized channels for dissent, not simply the occasional recognition of a duty to frank speech in specific and infrequent circumstances..." - Confucian Ethics
"Confucius clearly regards as very important the role of the ruler as an attractive model of what a person should be... 'If the ruler himself is upright, all will go well even though he does not give orders...' Conspicuous greed among the upper orders creates an atmosphere of greed that encourages crime among those below." - Confucian Ethics
COMMENT:
It is important to recognize (as we are all leaders of our respective communities) that our actions set the tone for what is or is not permissible within the group context. For instance, patterns of non-transparency, gossip, or giving voic...e to anger become more present and real each time they occur. Likewise, forthright communication, avoiding discussions that detract from unity, and celebrating difference also contribute to a group's value system and experience of "who we are." One individual cannot change another individual, but we can contribute to the group dynamic and so change everyone all at once, for good or ill.
"Who is puffed up cannot stand, / Who is self-absorbed has no distinction, / Who is self-revealing does not shine, / Who is self-assertive has no merit, / Who is self-praising does not last long. /// As for the Way, we may say these are / 'excess provisions and extra baggage.' / Creation abhors such extravagances. /// ...Therefore, / One who aspires to the Way, / does not abide in them." - Tao Te Ching, 66
"He who is skilled at speaking / is flawless in his delivery... The sage / is always skilled at saving others / and does not abandon them... Good men are teachers for the good man, / Bad men are foils for the good man. / He who values not his teacher / and loves not his foil, / Though he be knowledgeable / is greatly deluded." - Tao Te Ching, 71
"Understanding others is knowledge, / Understanding oneself is enlightenment; / Conquering others is power, / conquering oneself is strength; / Contentment is wealth, / Forceful conduct is willfulness..." - Tao Te Ching, 77
"Confucian development of the self... is very much in the context of what David Hume called 'mirroring fellow minds.' Other people's opinions of us need to be taken seriously. Even if they fail to appreciate whatever virtues we have, they still may have noticed something in us that requires work; or it may be that we n...eed to work on the ways in which we communicate to others." - Confucian Ethics
COMMENT:
An important thing to keep in mind where any act of "judgment" is concerned is how these acts tend to limit our understandings of how others "are." We lock them into a defined state of being, and if we're not careful, every time we experience their presence we engage them from this frame, sometimes despite evidence to the contrary, evidence that they've indeed changed. Assessing others' reality and their actions is important in determining how, when, or even IF we'll interact with them (and so important in maintaining the distinction between Self and Other), but it's equally important to remain open to the possibility (the inevitability, really) of change, both in them and in us.
“... goodness can infect a community. Moral force, Confucius says, 'never dwells in solitude; it will always bring neighbours.' This is one of the reasons why it is goodness 'that gives to a neighbourhood its beauty.’” - Confucian Ethics
“It is a Confucian belief that Heaven endows human beings with the sense of, and concern with, the transmission of culture, by which we search for the ultimate meaning of life. The Way of Heaven must be cultivated in personal experience and social interchange. The will of Heaven to preserve this culture animates the mo...ral tradition and gives it a cosmological significance on the one hand, and 'imposes' a mission on human beings to carry out what is hidden in this culture on the other hand.” - An Introduction to Confucianism
“Virtue is not only a quality, but an ability to transform oneself and a power to transform others. As the wind sways the grass, a person of virtue is believed to be able to lead the masses in the direction of the morally good.” - Introduction to Confucianism
“To be a person of virtue is thus no longer the privilege of a ruler or a superior minister. It has become a necessary condition for a personal transition from a crude and uncivilized being to a cultivated and civilized person.” - Introduction to Confucianism
“Self-cultivation is thus understood as the fundamental path to the spiritual transformation of one's character. By the interaction between the macrocosm and the microcosm, the transformation of one's own character is believed to fulfill the transformation of the cosmos and society.” - Introduction to Confucianism
"Love and reverence should be the roots of government... To preserve the Mandate of Heaven, the king is required to... reduce rather than increase the hardship of the people, to be benevolent rather than cruel to people, and to take care of those who are suffering." - Introduction to Confucianism
"Everyone has emotions, but not all of us can express them properly or in due time. To make our emotions harmonious, we must cultivate our character. It is believed that cultivating harmony within, we will become virtuous; while doing the contrary, we will spoil our character. In this sense, harmony is identified with ...moral virtues, and is deemed as the most important of all virtues." - Introduction to Confucianism
"To realize harmony... individuals are required to play an active, creative role in recasting and reshaping their life, to improve their understanding of the world, and to manifest their own nature. Harmony as the hightest ideal is thus closely related to nature, politics, ethics, and daily life... [and] is central to ...all existence and all activities..." - Introduction to Confucianism
"... a harmonious relationship between Heaven and humans refers to harmony between spirit and material, between form and matter, between mind and body, between the one (the universal) and the many (the particular). In a religious sense, it indicates a continual process between this life and the hereafter, between the d...ivine and the secular, and between heavenly principles and human behavior." - Intro to Confucianism
“In the area of naturalism, [a harmonious relationship between Heaven and humans] points to the unity between humans and Nature, between beings (the living) and things (the existent), and between the social and the natural.” - Intro to Confucianism
"From the perspective of politics, [a harmonious relationship between Heaven and humans] effects the unity between the ruled and the ruling, between the government and the mandate to govern, and inspires the people to correct disorder and chaos in order to attain peace and harmony." - Intro to Confucianism
“Within the human realm, the Confucian resolution of conflict concentrates on three kinds of relationships. Firstly, it searches for peace and harmony between the self and others by working on human nature, calling for cultivating one's virtues conscientiously.” - Intro to Confucianism
"Secondly, [the Confucian resolution of conflict] seeks to harmonize family relationships through cultivating a sense of mutual responsibilities between family members." - Intro to Confucianism
“Thirdly, [the Confucian resolution of conflict] looks for a way to diminish the possibility of violent conflict by establishing a humane government in which virtues overwhelm selfish contention.” - Intro to Confucianism
COMMENT:
In closing this trio of ideas regarding Conflict Resolution from a Confucian perspective, we would like to direct your focus to the manner in which a Confucian approaches their humanity within the context of the larger society of organisms ...and entities through which one defines oneself. The Confucian begins first with an exploration of Self, and sets about identifying and cultivating their virtue - their ability to live up to their conceptualization of Right and Wrong.
Next, this lifelong practice becomes actualized within the context of the family, who are the perfect participants for an individual's exploration of their unfolding Human Nature, and the attending approach to what a Confucian might call Heaven Nature.
Finally, this approach to Heaven Nature is to be manifested within organizational reality - within the society of Other organisms - in the highest structure which humans have devised to protect and govern the interaction of, well, everything: the government.
In examining this focus on Virtue within the Self and taking it as far as one can go into Other without infringing on their autonomy or freedom, we have a clear picture of what the Confucian society - and by extension, any society which seeks to gather around The Ideal (Justice, Freedom, Balance, etc.) - would look like.
The Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu
Confucian Ethics by Kwong-loi Shun & Wong
Introduction to Confucianism by Xinzhong Yao
"To realize that you do not understand is a virtue / To not realize that you do not understand is a defect / The reason why / The sage has no defects, / Is because he treats defects as defects. / Thus, he has no defects" - Tao Te Ching
COMMENT:
The idea here, from a Communication perspective, would be to see that all conflicts result from our not understanding our communication partner, and that most conflicts can be managed effectively by seeking to more clearly gain this necessary understanding. At this point, our "defect" is treated as such, eliminating it altogether.
“Human beings are / soft and supple when alive, / stiff and straight when dead. / The myriad creatures, the grasses and trees are / soft and fragile when alive, / dry and withered when dead. / Therefore it is said: / The rigid person is a disciple of death; / The soft, supple, and delicate are lovers of life.” - Tao Te Ching 41
“... human beings have an intrinsic value not because they are individual rights bearers, but because they are constitutive parts of an intrinsically valuable whole... not because they are individuals, but because they are interrelated.” - Confucian Ethics
"... people deserve respect and have dignity in two ways: externally, from the point of view of an observer, because they are integral parts of an intrinsically valuable whole, the sacred dance, and internally, from the point of view of other participants, because, analogous to the way that family members deserve respect from each other, we are all part of the same family." - Confucian Ethics
"When a group is a community working toward a common goal, talk of rights is [not] appropriate... it can be deleterious. Respect, equality, & dignity are all understood in terms of being a contributing member of the community. There will still be rules & boundaries, not because individuals... have rights, but because r...oles must be defined for the community to work effectively & to progress." - Confucian Ethics
COMMENT:
What is important about this statement is how it reveals a different manner in which to conceive of human value, and especially of what community "is." Consider it a process, an ongoing event: imagine a basketball game in which one player h...as violated another - perhaps she's physically restrained an opposing player who could have easily scored. Has the restrained player had their rights violated? Surely. But is this focus appropriate? Or does the deeper question surround the implications for the team itself, and for the game and all who are involved in it?
"... the need to protect and allow for the peaceful transformations of communities requires regular and institutionalized channels for dissent, not simply the occasional recognition of a duty to frank speech in specific and infrequent circumstances..." - Confucian Ethics
"Confucius clearly regards as very important the role of the ruler as an attractive model of what a person should be... 'If the ruler himself is upright, all will go well even though he does not give orders...' Conspicuous greed among the upper orders creates an atmosphere of greed that encourages crime among those below." - Confucian Ethics
COMMENT:
It is important to recognize (as we are all leaders of our respective communities) that our actions set the tone for what is or is not permissible within the group context. For instance, patterns of non-transparency, gossip, or giving voic...e to anger become more present and real each time they occur. Likewise, forthright communication, avoiding discussions that detract from unity, and celebrating difference also contribute to a group's value system and experience of "who we are." One individual cannot change another individual, but we can contribute to the group dynamic and so change everyone all at once, for good or ill.
"Who is puffed up cannot stand, / Who is self-absorbed has no distinction, / Who is self-revealing does not shine, / Who is self-assertive has no merit, / Who is self-praising does not last long. /// As for the Way, we may say these are / 'excess provisions and extra baggage.' / Creation abhors such extravagances. /// ...Therefore, / One who aspires to the Way, / does not abide in them." - Tao Te Ching, 66
"He who is skilled at speaking / is flawless in his delivery... The sage / is always skilled at saving others / and does not abandon them... Good men are teachers for the good man, / Bad men are foils for the good man. / He who values not his teacher / and loves not his foil, / Though he be knowledgeable / is greatly deluded." - Tao Te Ching, 71
"Understanding others is knowledge, / Understanding oneself is enlightenment; / Conquering others is power, / conquering oneself is strength; / Contentment is wealth, / Forceful conduct is willfulness..." - Tao Te Ching, 77
"Confucian development of the self... is very much in the context of what David Hume called 'mirroring fellow minds.' Other people's opinions of us need to be taken seriously. Even if they fail to appreciate whatever virtues we have, they still may have noticed something in us that requires work; or it may be that we n...eed to work on the ways in which we communicate to others." - Confucian Ethics
COMMENT:
An important thing to keep in mind where any act of "judgment" is concerned is how these acts tend to limit our understandings of how others "are." We lock them into a defined state of being, and if we're not careful, every time we experience their presence we engage them from this frame, sometimes despite evidence to the contrary, evidence that they've indeed changed. Assessing others' reality and their actions is important in determining how, when, or even IF we'll interact with them (and so important in maintaining the distinction between Self and Other), but it's equally important to remain open to the possibility (the inevitability, really) of change, both in them and in us.
“... goodness can infect a community. Moral force, Confucius says, 'never dwells in solitude; it will always bring neighbours.' This is one of the reasons why it is goodness 'that gives to a neighbourhood its beauty.’” - Confucian Ethics
“It is a Confucian belief that Heaven endows human beings with the sense of, and concern with, the transmission of culture, by which we search for the ultimate meaning of life. The Way of Heaven must be cultivated in personal experience and social interchange. The will of Heaven to preserve this culture animates the mo...ral tradition and gives it a cosmological significance on the one hand, and 'imposes' a mission on human beings to carry out what is hidden in this culture on the other hand.” - An Introduction to Confucianism
“Virtue is not only a quality, but an ability to transform oneself and a power to transform others. As the wind sways the grass, a person of virtue is believed to be able to lead the masses in the direction of the morally good.” - Introduction to Confucianism
“To be a person of virtue is thus no longer the privilege of a ruler or a superior minister. It has become a necessary condition for a personal transition from a crude and uncivilized being to a cultivated and civilized person.” - Introduction to Confucianism
“Self-cultivation is thus understood as the fundamental path to the spiritual transformation of one's character. By the interaction between the macrocosm and the microcosm, the transformation of one's own character is believed to fulfill the transformation of the cosmos and society.” - Introduction to Confucianism
"Love and reverence should be the roots of government... To preserve the Mandate of Heaven, the king is required to... reduce rather than increase the hardship of the people, to be benevolent rather than cruel to people, and to take care of those who are suffering." - Introduction to Confucianism
"Everyone has emotions, but not all of us can express them properly or in due time. To make our emotions harmonious, we must cultivate our character. It is believed that cultivating harmony within, we will become virtuous; while doing the contrary, we will spoil our character. In this sense, harmony is identified with ...moral virtues, and is deemed as the most important of all virtues." - Introduction to Confucianism
"To realize harmony... individuals are required to play an active, creative role in recasting and reshaping their life, to improve their understanding of the world, and to manifest their own nature. Harmony as the hightest ideal is thus closely related to nature, politics, ethics, and daily life... [and] is central to ...all existence and all activities..." - Introduction to Confucianism
"... a harmonious relationship between Heaven and humans refers to harmony between spirit and material, between form and matter, between mind and body, between the one (the universal) and the many (the particular). In a religious sense, it indicates a continual process between this life and the hereafter, between the d...ivine and the secular, and between heavenly principles and human behavior." - Intro to Confucianism
“In the area of naturalism, [a harmonious relationship between Heaven and humans] points to the unity between humans and Nature, between beings (the living) and things (the existent), and between the social and the natural.” - Intro to Confucianism
"From the perspective of politics, [a harmonious relationship between Heaven and humans] effects the unity between the ruled and the ruling, between the government and the mandate to govern, and inspires the people to correct disorder and chaos in order to attain peace and harmony." - Intro to Confucianism
“Within the human realm, the Confucian resolution of conflict concentrates on three kinds of relationships. Firstly, it searches for peace and harmony between the self and others by working on human nature, calling for cultivating one's virtues conscientiously.” - Intro to Confucianism
"Secondly, [the Confucian resolution of conflict] seeks to harmonize family relationships through cultivating a sense of mutual responsibilities between family members." - Intro to Confucianism
“Thirdly, [the Confucian resolution of conflict] looks for a way to diminish the possibility of violent conflict by establishing a humane government in which virtues overwhelm selfish contention.” - Intro to Confucianism
COMMENT:
In closing this trio of ideas regarding Conflict Resolution from a Confucian perspective, we would like to direct your focus to the manner in which a Confucian approaches their humanity within the context of the larger society of organisms ...and entities through which one defines oneself. The Confucian begins first with an exploration of Self, and sets about identifying and cultivating their virtue - their ability to live up to their conceptualization of Right and Wrong.
Next, this lifelong practice becomes actualized within the context of the family, who are the perfect participants for an individual's exploration of their unfolding Human Nature, and the attending approach to what a Confucian might call Heaven Nature.
Finally, this approach to Heaven Nature is to be manifested within organizational reality - within the society of Other organisms - in the highest structure which humans have devised to protect and govern the interaction of, well, everything: the government.
In examining this focus on Virtue within the Self and taking it as far as one can go into Other without infringing on their autonomy or freedom, we have a clear picture of what the Confucian society - and by extension, any society which seeks to gather around The Ideal (Justice, Freedom, Balance, etc.) - would look like.
The Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu
Confucian Ethics by Kwong-loi Shun & Wong
Introduction to Confucianism by Xinzhong Yao
Roger Schwarz: The 9 Guidelines for Effective Communication
In creating Community, it is important to employ "a set of core values and principles and a number of techniques and methods" derived from them. In the next few posts, we will move from the dialogical theology of Martin Buber and share the 9 Guidelines of Communication espoused by Roger Schwarz in his "Skilled Facilitator Fieldbook."
"Guideline for Effective Communication #1: Test Assumptions & Inferences" - Roger Schwarz. It's important to be CERTAIN about the INTENDED content in conversation, and not just certain about what we "heard." If I ask my partner, "Are you wearing that?" I could mean, "Are you ready?" or "Are you really going out like that?" among other things. To help avoid conflict, she should test her inference.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #2: Share All Relevant Information" - Roger Schwarz. Truth-telling is vital to relationships, and keeps groups operating and united within a collective understanding of "what is." Also, sometimes our emotional state in a conversation may be a byproduct of a separate encounter, but is misread by our current communication partner: let them know where you are before engaging.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #3: Use Specific Examples & Agree On What Important Words Mean" - Roger Schwarz. If your boss asks you to "run the numbers," you should BOTH be certain about what that means. She should give an example, and you should double-check your understanding before proceeding. This saves time and avoids conflict.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #4: Explain Your Reasoning & Intent" - Roger Schwarz. It is important to share w/ others your process & the results you're hoping for. This allows them to correct any misconceptions as well as gain a clearer understanding of your needs & interests, creating both commitment to and authenticity in the experience.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #5: Focus On Interests, Not Positions" - Roger Schwarz. The cornerstone of Conflict Resolution, the idea is to explore the underlying reasons fueling the positions we've taken in a conflict in order to find common ground. For example:2 kids each fight over 1 orange, but one wants the rind to bake, the other wants the pulp to eat.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #6: Combine Advocacy & Inquiry" - Roger Schwarz. Be explicit about including your Other in any conversation, and especially in decision-making. This is as simple as advocating for your ideas, then closing your statements with a question like: How does this strike you? This makes clear to all concerned that your Other is a partner rather than an adversary.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #7: Jointly Design Next Steps & Ways to Test Solutions" - Roger Schwarz. Once a course of action has been chosen, create a plan that clearly outlines next steps, and a time to gather with other decision makers to assess progress. This helps everyone understand that there might still need to be some adjustments made, and invites everyone to a designated time and place to discuss.
“Guideline for Effective Communication #8: Discuss The Undiscussable Issues" - Roger Schwarz. It's important to identify and address latent conflicts, since otherwise these tend to quietly snowball into an often unpleasant eruption. Utilizing other Guidelines, engage in discussions that seek to resolve and understand underlying tensions or imbalances, and to rediscover mutuality.”
"Guideline for Effective Communication #9: Make Decisions By Consensus In Order To Generate Commitment" - Roger Schwarz. It's important to make certain in decision-making that all parties to a decision are "on board." Half-hearted agreeance usually indicates misgivings, and often those misgivings are essential to group harmony and success. If someone seems ambivalent about a decision, discover their reasoning.
The Skilled Facilitator Fieldbook by Roger Schwarz
"Guideline for Effective Communication #1: Test Assumptions & Inferences" - Roger Schwarz. It's important to be CERTAIN about the INTENDED content in conversation, and not just certain about what we "heard." If I ask my partner, "Are you wearing that?" I could mean, "Are you ready?" or "Are you really going out like that?" among other things. To help avoid conflict, she should test her inference.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #2: Share All Relevant Information" - Roger Schwarz. Truth-telling is vital to relationships, and keeps groups operating and united within a collective understanding of "what is." Also, sometimes our emotional state in a conversation may be a byproduct of a separate encounter, but is misread by our current communication partner: let them know where you are before engaging.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #3: Use Specific Examples & Agree On What Important Words Mean" - Roger Schwarz. If your boss asks you to "run the numbers," you should BOTH be certain about what that means. She should give an example, and you should double-check your understanding before proceeding. This saves time and avoids conflict.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #4: Explain Your Reasoning & Intent" - Roger Schwarz. It is important to share w/ others your process & the results you're hoping for. This allows them to correct any misconceptions as well as gain a clearer understanding of your needs & interests, creating both commitment to and authenticity in the experience.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #5: Focus On Interests, Not Positions" - Roger Schwarz. The cornerstone of Conflict Resolution, the idea is to explore the underlying reasons fueling the positions we've taken in a conflict in order to find common ground. For example:2 kids each fight over 1 orange, but one wants the rind to bake, the other wants the pulp to eat.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #6: Combine Advocacy & Inquiry" - Roger Schwarz. Be explicit about including your Other in any conversation, and especially in decision-making. This is as simple as advocating for your ideas, then closing your statements with a question like: How does this strike you? This makes clear to all concerned that your Other is a partner rather than an adversary.
"Guideline for Effective Communication #7: Jointly Design Next Steps & Ways to Test Solutions" - Roger Schwarz. Once a course of action has been chosen, create a plan that clearly outlines next steps, and a time to gather with other decision makers to assess progress. This helps everyone understand that there might still need to be some adjustments made, and invites everyone to a designated time and place to discuss.
“Guideline for Effective Communication #8: Discuss The Undiscussable Issues" - Roger Schwarz. It's important to identify and address latent conflicts, since otherwise these tend to quietly snowball into an often unpleasant eruption. Utilizing other Guidelines, engage in discussions that seek to resolve and understand underlying tensions or imbalances, and to rediscover mutuality.”
"Guideline for Effective Communication #9: Make Decisions By Consensus In Order To Generate Commitment" - Roger Schwarz. It's important to make certain in decision-making that all parties to a decision are "on board." Half-hearted agreeance usually indicates misgivings, and often those misgivings are essential to group harmony and success. If someone seems ambivalent about a decision, discover their reasoning.
The Skilled Facilitator Fieldbook by Roger Schwarz
Relation As Reciprocity: The Dialogical Theology of Martin Buber
"Relation Is Reciprocity."
“The basic word I-Thou can only be spoken with one's whole being.
The basic word I-It can never be spoken with one's whole being.”
"The form that confronts me I cannot experience or describe; I can only actualize it... radiant in the splendor of the confrontation... Such work is creation, inventing is finding."
"Feelings accompany the metaphysical and metapsychical fact of love, but they do not constitute it... Feelings dwell in man, but man dwells in his love. This is no metaphor but actuality: love does not cling to an I, as if the Thou were merely its 'content' or object; it is between Thou and I."
"Spirit is not in the I, but between I and Thou... Man lives in the spirit when he is able to respond to his Thou... It is solely by virtue of his power to relate that man is able to live in the spirit."
"True community does not come into being because people have feelings for each other, but rather on two accounts: all of them have to stand in a living, reciprocal relationship to a single living center, and they have to stand in a living, reciprocal relationship to one another... A community is built upon a living, reciprocal relationship, but the builder is the living, active center."
"The purpose of a relation is the relation itself - touching the Thou. For as soon as we touch a Thou, we are touched by a breath of eternal life. Whoever stands in relation participates in an actuality; that is, in a being that is neither merely a part of him nor merely outside him."
"Egos appear by setting themselves apart from other egos. Persons appear by entering into relation to other persons."
"Every great culture that embraces more than one people rests on some original encounter, an event at the source when a response was made to a Thou... Reinforced by the energy of subsequent generations... this creates a distinctive conception of the cosmos in the spirit [and] a human cosmos becomes possible again and again."
"The structures of communal human life derive their life from the fullness of the relational force that permeates their members, and they derive their embodied form from the saturation of this force by the spirit."
"The capricious man does not believe and encounter. He does not know association; he only knows the feverish world out there and his feverish desire to use it."
I and Thou by Martin Buber
“The basic word I-Thou can only be spoken with one's whole being.
The basic word I-It can never be spoken with one's whole being.”
"The form that confronts me I cannot experience or describe; I can only actualize it... radiant in the splendor of the confrontation... Such work is creation, inventing is finding."
"Feelings accompany the metaphysical and metapsychical fact of love, but they do not constitute it... Feelings dwell in man, but man dwells in his love. This is no metaphor but actuality: love does not cling to an I, as if the Thou were merely its 'content' or object; it is between Thou and I."
"Spirit is not in the I, but between I and Thou... Man lives in the spirit when he is able to respond to his Thou... It is solely by virtue of his power to relate that man is able to live in the spirit."
"True community does not come into being because people have feelings for each other, but rather on two accounts: all of them have to stand in a living, reciprocal relationship to a single living center, and they have to stand in a living, reciprocal relationship to one another... A community is built upon a living, reciprocal relationship, but the builder is the living, active center."
"The purpose of a relation is the relation itself - touching the Thou. For as soon as we touch a Thou, we are touched by a breath of eternal life. Whoever stands in relation participates in an actuality; that is, in a being that is neither merely a part of him nor merely outside him."
"Egos appear by setting themselves apart from other egos. Persons appear by entering into relation to other persons."
"Every great culture that embraces more than one people rests on some original encounter, an event at the source when a response was made to a Thou... Reinforced by the energy of subsequent generations... this creates a distinctive conception of the cosmos in the spirit [and] a human cosmos becomes possible again and again."
"The structures of communal human life derive their life from the fullness of the relational force that permeates their members, and they derive their embodied form from the saturation of this force by the spirit."
"The capricious man does not believe and encounter. He does not know association; he only knows the feverish world out there and his feverish desire to use it."
I and Thou by Martin Buber
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